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Should gene-editing be abolished?

Analury Sanchez

Professor Ocxanne Jean, Ph.D.

Advance Writing and Research-DL-B

Apr 02, 2022

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Should gene-editing be abolished?

I. Introduction: In the recent years, humans have witnessed technological developments

whereby tomatoes ripen slowly, cattle without horns, and even mosquitos that cannot transmit

malaria. This has been necessitated by gene editing. According to Ayanoğlu, Elçin & Elçin (2020),

gene editing is a technology that provides scientists with an opportunity of making changes to the

DNA of an organism. Thanks to gene editing, it is possible to edit a particular disease out of an

individual. The increase in ethical controversy of gene editing can be attributed to its potential of

asserting some significant control over the kind of future for humans. This topic emphasizes why

gene editing should be abolished due to the unprecedented health implications of genetically

modified humans.

II. Background: According to Abuhammad, Khabour and Alzoubi (2021), genetic

modifications can lead to the creation of super-humans and "designer babies" while also

perpetrating fundamental alteration of the human species. As a matter of fact, genomic research

may potentially be weaponized towards targeting as well as harming particular population groups.

The moral, ethical, and legal boundaries of utilizing genetic technologies are largely unclear, which

creates opportunities for their abuse and misuse. On the other hand, Howard et al. (2018) argued

that gene-editing technologies are associated with diverse ethical concerns, particularly when the

process is utilized towards addressing a given genetic diagnosis of an unborn child due to the

potential evolution of off-target edits.

Gene editing can result in unprecedented and unwanted heritable genetic alterations that

may contribute to long-term risks in clinical space (Conboy, 2018). Accessing gene therapies for

combating diseases, for instance, could be limited to those who can afford them, which increases

health inequality outcomes across and within countries. Ethically, there are safety concerns to the

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side effects of the technology, including lack of informed consent for germline as the affected

clients by the edits are not yet born (Holm, 2019). Many countries, particularly the developing and

underdeveloped nations, may fail to afford the technology, which increases the inequality gap in

society. Should gene-editing be abolished? Gene editing should be abolished due to the potential

impact on society and serious ethical concerns associated with the technology.

III. Arguments: Medicine has recently reached a turning point with major changes highly

likely to be experienced, particularly with the growth of disruptive technologies like cell therapies,

RNA, and gene enabling scientists to approach diseases in ways that have never been witnessed

before. From a scientific perspective, medical researchers are keen on establishing the risks and

opportunities of gene editing. In this regard, critics of gene editing argue that the technology could

be associated with unpredictable implications on the environment and human health, especially

fears of creating “designer humans.”

a. Reason 1: Altering the genes of a child before birth implies that such alterations are

passed on to future generations, meaning that the DNA of the child’s body is permanently and

irreversibly changed.

i. Evidence 1a: There is a need to preserve the human right to an open future and

bodily integrity. According to Davies (2019), there is a high potential for errors being

experienced in the process of gene editing.

ii. Evidence 1b: Gene editing could have errors associated with devastating effects

like accidentally deleting a gene, thus leading to developmental defects in the unborn child

(Davies, 2019).

iii. Evidence 1c: There is a possibility that germline editing and adverse effects

may be passed on from one generation to another (Davies, 2019).

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b. Reason 2: Gene editing is bound to reinforce inequalities in society as the commercial

and social dynamics whereby modifying the human germline may exacerbate global disparities and

take structural inequality to greater heights.

i. Evidence 2a: When humans are presented with an opportunity of accessing the

technology, there could be serious challenges in that attempt to control what it is used for,

thus creating a slippery slope. In this regard, parents-to-be could utilize the technologies in

what may be termed as racist or sexist (Khan, 2019).

ii. Evidence 2b: If parents are given an opportunity of choosing the sex of their

baby, it could lead to sexism.

iii. Evidence 2c: The ability to choose the physical characteristics of a child so that

s/he is more attractive could lead to racism (Khan, 2019).

c. Reason 3: Gene editing entails a change of cellular structure.

i. Evidence 3a: A slight change of cells can result in new creatures that can

threaten societal existence (Abuhammad et.al, 2021).

ii. Evidence 3b: A small error in gene editing is likely to lead to an undesired

outcome. Some of the experiments are meant to create diseases resistant human beings

(Conboy, 2018).

iii Evidence 3c: There is some likelihood of creating some deadlier diseases in the

process (Conboy, 2018). Therefore, gene editing is a dangerous experiment.

III. Refuting Opponents’ Arguments

a. Opposing view 1: A. Those supporting gene editing have argued that technology is

instrumental in dealing with the most severe and deadly diseases.

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i. Evidence 1a. Diverse genetic mutations affecting millions of people globally

could end if humans are actively involved in genetically engineering the next generation

(Conboy, 2018).

ii. Evidence 1b. Genetic modification in mice has been shown to have

unanticipated long-term adverse effects (Conboy, 2018).

iii. Evidence 1c. CRISPR Gene Editing has been shown to increase the risk of

developing cancer cells and affect healthy cells faster (Conboy, 2018).

b. Opposing view 2: Gene editing can extend the human lifespan as diseases and illnesses

that shorten the lifespan of many people are eliminated.

i. Evidence 2a: To this end, genetic editing can reverse the most fundamental

reasons for the natural decline of the human body on a cellular level (Holms, 2019).

ii. Evidence 2b: Drastically improving both the quality of life and span (Holms,

2019).

IV. Conclusion: Gene editing is a technology that should not be embraced anywhere due

to the increasing uncertainty of the side effects and implications on future generations. There is a

need for more research on the topic towards establishing the potential benefits, opportunities, and

risks associated with the technology for it to be advanced. This topic is important because changing

the genetic inheritance of the human species may potentially provoke a backlash, which implies

that people need to condemn pernicious genetic technologies while encouraging those that can

benefit the human species.

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References

Abuhammad, S., Khabour, O. F., & Alzoubi, K. H. (2021). Researchers views about perceived

harms and benefits of gene editing: A study from the MENA region. Heliyon, 7(4), e06860.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06860

Ayanoğlu, F. B., Elçin, A. E., & Elçin, Y. M. (2020). Bioethical issues in genome editing by

CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Turkish Journal of Biology, 44(2), 110-120.

https://doi.org/10.3906/biy-1912-52

Conboy, I. (2018). Faculty opinions recommendation of CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing induces a

p53-mediated DNA damage response. Faculty Opinions – Post-Publication Peer Review of

the Biomedical Literature. https://doi.org/10.3410/f.733427168.793553934

Davies, B. (2019). The technical risks of human gene editing. Human Reproduction, 34(11), 2104-

2111. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dez162

Holm, S. (2019). Let us assume that gene editing is safe—the role of safety arguments in the gene-

editing debate. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 28(1), 100-111.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0963180118000439

Howard, H. C., van El, C. G., Forzano, F., Radojkovic, D., Rial-Sebbag, E., de Wert, G., … &

Cornel, M. C. (2018). One small edit for humans, one giant edit for humankind? Points and

questions to consider for a responsible way forward for gene editing in humans. European

Journal of Human Genetics, 26(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-017-0024-z

Khan, S. H. (2019). Genome-editing technologies: concept, pros, and cons of various genome-

editing techniques and bioethical concerns for clinical application. Molecular Therapy-

Nucleic Acids, 16, 326-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omtn.2019.02.027

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1  

Social Media in Business (BUS5415.E1) Assignment 2, Worksheet 

NAME: Karishma Sagar Please “Save As” this file and include your name in the file name before you upload to Moodle.  

DIRECTIONS ● You will use your 4 selected and approved organizations from week one. 

o B2C (Business‐to‐consumer) o B2B (Business‐to‐Business) o Non‐profit organization not operated by a government entity  o Government agency or group  

● A workspace for each of your organizations is provided below. ● At the top of each workspace, type the name of your organization. ● In each organization’s workspace, there are 5 categories of purposes that your organization may 

use social media. In the “Your Answer” Field: ● Think of a reason, the purpose the organization would use social media for the associated 

category and provide a short description o You do NOT need to describe how the organization would execute your idea, just 

provide the reason which is basically what the business is trying to achieve or the problem they are trying to solve. 

o An example is provided on the next page.  Each organization workspace is 25 points. 

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Business‐to Consumer (B2C) B2C Organization: AMAZON Category 1: Increase Revenue Provide an example of an Increase Revenue purpose your B2C company would want to achieve with social media Your answer:

Amazon with the use of social media could easily actualize its revenue purpose. Due to the escalating numbers of social media users, Amazon can use the various platforms in identifying customer feedback based on pricing, products and overall service given to the users.

Category 2: Brand Awareness Provide an example of a Brand Awareness purpose your B2C company would want to achieve with social media Your answer:

Amazon would utilize different social media platforms to advertise their products, thus reach a wider consumer pool.

Category 3: Communication Provide an example of a Communication-related purpose your B2C company would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Amazon could use the social media to communicate with their customers regarding their fair and square pricing technique, thus their overall price adjustments.

Category 4: Education Provide an example of an Education-related purpose your B2C company would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Amazon could use the social media to teach retail owners on the importance of customer’s price conditioning.

Category 5: Customer Service Provide an example of a Customer service-related purpose your B2C company would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Amazon could use social media to handle concerns and complaints posted from various feedbacks by customers. By doing so, other interested customer will see and know how dedicated the company is to achieving their overall satisfaction.

Commented [KP1]: Not sure what this means. The assignment asked for an example of a business purpose. Not clear on how customer feedback will increase revenue. 

Commented [KP2]: I’ll give you credit for this one; however, it really fits the increase revenue category. 

Commented [KP3]: This is not B2C. How does this help consumers? 

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Business‐to‐Business (B2B)  

Your Business-to-Business (B2B) Organization: Dropbox Category 1: Increase Revenue Provide an example of an Increase Revenue purpose that your B2B company would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Dropbox could use the social media to market services and products to viable business clients and prospects as explained by (Ancillai et al., 2019).

Category 2: Brand Awareness Provide an example of a Brand Awareness purpose your B2B company would want to achieve with social media Your answer:

Dropbox could use social media to retarget highly relevant audience example through the use of re-targeting advertisements.

Category 3: Communication Provide an example of a Communication-related purpose your B2B company would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Dropbox could use social media platforms to communicate with respective and prospect client through advertisement regarding their pricing strategy, thus reach consumers during their decision-making concerning personal purchases.

Category 4: Education Provide an example of an Education-related purpose your B2B company would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Dropbox could use social media in answering pertinent questions regarding their products and current position in the market share. Example, it could teach on price farming a product which in turn contributes in the creation of a perceived value. In the long run, this could lead to excitement linked with good product deals.

Category 5: Customer Service Provide an example of a Customer service-related purpose your B2B company would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Dropbox could use social media platforms in elaborating viable information related to pricing of their products.

Commented [KP4]: As stated in the feedback for Assignment 1, you were supposed to notify me via Moodle message or email that you wish to change your B2B selection. I’m going to allow this change, but you need to send me the information the background information on Dropbox that was requested in assignment 1. 

Commented [KP5]: This is too vague; also the assignment is asking for your ideas.  

Commented [KP6]: I’ll give you credit, but this one really belongs in category 1. 

Commented [KP7]: Not everything in social media is an advertisement. Organizations use social media to communicate many things, but are not directly selling to customers. It’s not clear what Dropbox is communicating in this example. 

Commented [KP8]: The first sentence is on the right track. The example is confusing; missing the tie of price farming and Dropbox products. 

Commented [KP9]: This one is the same as the one above; just reworded. 

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Non‐Profit (not operated by a government entity)  

Your Non-Profit Organization: Red-Cross Category 1: Increase Donations Provide an example of an Increase Donations purpose that your non-profit would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Red Cross as a non-profit organization, it could use social media to share the objectives and goals concerning its diversified charity participations. In the long run, interested partners and volunteers will join and aid it actualize its goals; through donation making.

Category 2: Brand Awareness Provide an example of a Brand Awareness purpose your non-profit would want to achieve with social media Your answer:

By using social media, example advertising their values and objectives alongside stating their participatory working margins, Red Cross will increase its brand awareness.

Category 3: Communication Provide an example of a Communication-related purpose your non-profit would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Red Cross could use the media platforms to communicate on their goals alongside their sustainability development goals. According to Liang et al. (2020) through this communication, consumer audience and interested donor parties will get in contact with the organization; thus increasing their overall donation span.

Category 4: Education Provide an example of an Education-related purpose your non-profit would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

Red Cross can use social media to educate through writing of healthcare blogs on their websites.

Category 5: Customer Service Provide an example of a Customer (donor or volunteer) service-related purpose your non-profit would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

The specified organization can use various media platforms to educate their customer about the advantages and disadvantages of blood donation.

Commented [KP10]: This section is incorrect because the organization that was approved from week 1’s assignment was the World Wildlife Fund. 

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Government Agency or Group  

Your Government Agency or Group Organization: The department of agriculture Category 1: Increase Revenue Not applicable – skip this category Your answer:

Skip this category

Category 2: Brand Awareness Provide an example of a Brand Awareness purpose government agency would want to achieve with social media Your answer:

The specified government agency can use social media to create brand awareness through using imagery and graphics example use of billboards advertisement

Category 3: Communication Provide an example of a Communication-related purpose government agency would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

The given government agency could use social media to communicate on various goals and objectives it intends to carry out, that will translate to various social impacts to the community example; the advantages of the project to the well-being of the community.

Category 4: Education Provide an example of an Education-related purpose government agency would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

The organization can teach the immediate community through social media on diverse ways to make money example through forming community based self-groups

Category 5: Customer Service Provide an example of a Customer service-related purpose government agency would want to achieve with social media. Your answer:

The agency for example could teach its various consumer segments on the importance of saving and partnering with them.

Overall

References Ancillai, C., Terho, H., Cardinali, S., & Pascucci, F. (2019). Advancing social media driven sales

research: Establishing conceptual foundations for B-to-B social selling. Industrial

Marketing Management, 82, 293-308.

Commented [KP11]: This section is incorrect because the organization that was approved from week 1’s assignment was the Environmental Protection Agency.  

Commented [KP12]: Karishma, you didn’t really follow the directions for this assignment; which resulted in a low grade. If you don’t understand an assignment you need to reach out to me.  

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Liang, X., Hu, X., & Jiang, J. (2020). Research on the effects of information description on

crowdfunding success within a sustainable economy—the perspective of information

communication. Sustainability, 12(2), 650.

Climate �feedbacks�

We talked briefly about the positive feedback processes of climate change in previous lectures. What is “feedback”?

Feedback is a concept that explains the interaction of the climate system that alters changes in climate. When the rate of climate change is amplified (either by warming or cooling), the process is called “positive feedback”. The upper figure demonstrates the basic way that these feedbacks operate.

On the other hand, when the rate of climate change is suppressed, then the process is called “negative feedback” (lower figure).

Primary Climate System Feedbacks• Radiation feedback (hotter planet radiates

more energy out to space, E=sT4)

• Snow/ice-albedo feedback

• Water Vapor feedback

• Cloud feedback (high versus low clouds)

So, climate feedbacks are a loop of cause and effect; positive (amplifier) and negative feedbacks (stabilizer). Some feedback processes are more complicated than others. Here are a few important feedbacks that affect our climate system.

Temperatureà radiation feedbackEnergy emitted = σT4

éTemperature

éradiation to space

éCO2

êTemperature

The temperature of the Earth is increasing due to a rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Thus, how will the climate feedback system change with this temperature increase?

First, increases in temperature will alter radiation feedback because the energy emitted from a blackbody is proportionate to its temperature to the fourth (σT4). Feedback process: Increasing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere – increasing temperature – increasing associated energy radiation to space – decreasing temperature

Thus, increasing CO2 is a negative feedback process in the long term. However, this feedback process in the climate system is far more complex. This is not the only feedback loop that we know of.

Snow/sea ice albedo feedback

Melting of snow/sea ice directly affects the albedo of the Earth (less ice = decrease in albedo)

Measuring Earth’s Albedohttps://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=84499

Also, we have seen how recent warming has been impacting the arctic sea ice (see the following two slides)

Polar amplification!

Global temperature departures from average during January through May 2020, compared with a 1951-1980 average. (Berkeley Earth).

Greater climate change observed near the pole responds to changes in the radiation balance (e.g. intensified greenhouse effect). This phenomenon is known as “polar amplification”.

Melting sea ice in the Arctic decreases the Earth’s albedo. Changes in albedo are likely contributing to significant temperature increases in the northern hemisphere. The increase in surface temperature is observed mainly in the higher latitude in the northern hemisphere, where most sea ice is, and where there is a greater continental distribution (more continent is located in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere. continent heat capacity is lower than the water body – ocean).

Polar Amplification

“Over the past 100 years, it is possible (33-66% confidence) that there has been polar amplification, however, over the past 50 years it is probable (66-90% confidence)”[The Arctic Climate Impacts Assessment (ACIA), 2005, p22]

Although polar amplification has been a known phenomenon for over 100 years, such amplification has been more and more prominent in the recent past.

Further reading: Polar amplification effecthttp://ossfoundation.us/projects/environment/global-warming/arctic-polar-amplification-effect

IPCC AR5 report about polar regions (https://unfccc.int/files/science/workstreams/research/application/pdf/5_wgiar5_hezel_sbsta40_short.pdf)

Snow/sea ice albedo feedback

éTemperature

êsnow and ice

éCO2

Melting of snow/sea ice directly affects the albedo of the Earth (less ice = decrease in albedo).

Feedback process: Increasing CO2 concentration –> increasing temperature –> melting snow/sea ice –> decreasing albedo –> less energy reflected to the space –> further increasing temperature

Water vapor feedback

http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclecondensation.html

Clausius-Clapeyron relationship

Warm air holds more water vapor!

NASA: Sea Surface Temperature vs Water Vaporhttps://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=MYD28M&d2=MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV

http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/fall16/atmo336/lectures/sec1/evap_cond.html

Clausius-Clapayron relationship is a way of characterizing discontinuous phase transition between two phases of a matter of a single constituent. This concept explains the relationship between the temperature and water vapor, which is by far the most concerning greenhouse gas in Earth’s atmosphere. This figure shows how the water-holding capacity of the atmosphere (water vapor pressure) increases by 8% per temperature increase in Celsius. Importantly, this relationship is mainly a function of temperature, and not directly dependent on other parameters like pressure or density.

What does this figure tell us? “warm air hold more water vapor!”

Measures of Humidity

(a)

(b)

The same concept can be explained by “relative humidity” and “water vapor capacity”. • Vapor pressure – contribution of water vapor to total atmospheric pressure• Humidity – amount of water vapor in the air

Imagine you have a balloon that is perfectly sealed. No air or water vapor goes in or out of this balloon. In this figure, “water vapor capacity (red solid line)” indicates that your balloon is “saturated (= relatively humidity 100%)” at the temperature and the amount of water vapor that exists in the balloon. Now, your balloon is first saturated at 16 degree Celsius or 60 degree Fahrenheit with 10g of water vapor per cubic meter. How can you change the saturation status? It is easy – you just need to change its temperature! If you heat up your balloon, for instance, to 100F, your balloon will no longer be saturated (a). Instead, to saturate this warm balloon (100F to be exact), you need 4 times more water vapor (b)!

Measures of Humidity• Relative humidity – how close the air is to saturation– Saturation represents the maximum amount of water

vapor the air can hold– Saturation depends on temperature– Saturation vapor pressure

In this figure, water vapor capacity is depicted in the yellow circle. The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere does not change regardless of the temperature (blue circle). Instead, water vapor capacity increases with increasing temperature. Therefore, relative humidity decreases when you increase the temperature.

• Temperature and relative humidity are inversely related

Measures of Humidity

This relationship is rather obvious if you plot the typical hourly temperature with the relative humidity for 24 hours. Temperature increases in the morning at around 8 am. You observe the highest temperature of the day in the afternoon. The temperature decreases when the sun sets. As you can see, relative humidity is almost a mirror image of temperature. The relative humidity is highest in the early morning when the temperature is the lowest, and is at its minimum when the temperature is at the highest of the day.

• Temperature and relative humidity are inversely related

• Dew point temperature

Measures of Humidity

You must have seen dew in the grass or a windshield in the early morning, when the temperature is lowest. This is because the air becomes saturated and the excess amount of water is condensed to form moisture! When the temperature is close to freezing level, the dew turns into frost. Both are exactly the same phenomenon.

Dew point temperature—the critical air temperature at which saturation is reached.

Also, when warm air rises, the temperature decreases adiabatically. At some point, the air becomes saturated, and the excess amount of water is condensed. This is called cloud!

Water vapor feedback

ñTemperature

ñH2O vapor

ñCO2

Feedback process: Increasing CO2 concentration – increasing temperature – high temperature can hold more H2O vapor (which is a greenhouse gas!) – further increasing temperature

Studies show that water vapor feedback roughly doubles the amount of warming caused by CO2!Further reading:https://www.skepticalscience.com/water-vapor-greenhouse-gas.htm

Cloud Feedback

Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature in which a change in radiative forcing perturbs the surface air temperature, leading to a change in clouds, which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation.

Cloud feedbacks are more complicated

éTemperature

éclouds

éCO2or

êTemperature

Feedback process:Increasing CO2 concentration –> increasing temperature –> enhance cloud formation (due to enhanced evaporation from the ocean) –> clouds emit infrared radiation back to the Earth’s surface (positive feedback)

Or

– cloud reflects sunlight (negative feedback)

Condensation• Conversion of vapor to

liquid water• Surface tension makes it nearly

impossible to grow pure water droplets

• Need supersaturated air• Need particles to grow droplets

around, a cloud condensation nuclei

• Liquid water can persist at temperatures colder than 0�C without a nuclei – supercooled

How big does a rain drop need to be to reach Earth without evaporating?

The drop would have to be approximately .2 mm or larger in diameter. Typical rain drops are 2 mm in diameter.

• Lifting condensation level (LCL)

Adiabatic Processes

Large masses of air can be cooled to the dew point ONLY by expanding as they rise. Because of this limitation, adiabatic cooling is the only prominent mechanism for development of clouds and production of rain.

When warm air rises, it cools down. This is called adiabatic cooling. When the air cools, it holds less moisture (capacity decreases). As a result, relative humidity increases. The altitude at which air becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) is called lifting condensation level (LCL).

Perhaps you have seen clouds like those shown in the slide – tall puffy clouds with a flat bottom. This happens because rising warm air continuously brings moisture to higher altitudes and, at a given point, air becomes saturated (LCL). Clouds will form above the LCL.

Lenticular clouds

Examples of cloud formation due to atmospheric lifting!

– Cirrus clouds– Cumulus clouds– Stratus clouds

CloudsNot all clouds precipitate, but all precipitation comes from clouds!

The Oxford English Dictionary: (Cloud is) "a visible mass of condensed watery vapor floating in the air at some considerable height above the general surface of the ground."

At any given time, about 50 percent of Earth is covered by clouds. Clouds play an important role in the global energy budget.

• Cloud types– High clouds (over 6 km)– Middle clouds (from 2 to

6 km)– Low clouds (less than

2 km)– Clouds of vertical

development• Grow upward from

low bases to heights of over 15 km occasionally

Cloud Families

Cloud categories are largely based on altitude:• High clouds—Altocumulus clouds—found above 6 kilometers (i.e., cirrus

clouds) • Middle clouds—between about 2 and 6 kilometers (i.e., altocumulus and alto

stratus).• Low clouds—below 2 kilometers (i.e., stratocumulus and nimbostratus).• Clouds with vertical development (i.e., cumulus clouds).

Clouds– Cirrus clouds (high clouds)

Feathery appearance.

Cirrus: Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, mostly white patches or narrow bands. These clouds may have a fibrous (hair-like) and/or silky sheen appearance. Although cirrus clouds may look less dense, considering that they form in the high altitude, they are always composed of ice crystals. Since ice crystals are a blackbody that absorb and re-radiate outgoing infrared radiation, having more cirrus clouds contribute to warming (positive feedback)!

– Cumulus clouds (middle to low clouds)

Puffy white cloud that forms from rising columns of air.

– Stratus clouds (low clouds)Low clouds, usually below 6500 feet, that sometimes occur as individual clouds but more often appear as a general overcast.

Clouds

Cumulus: Detached, generally dense clouds and with sharp outlines that develop vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes or towers with bulging upper parts often resembling a cauliflower. The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white while their bases are relatively dark and horizontal. Precipitation of showers or snow may be associated with cumulus clouds.

Stratus: A generally gray cloud layer with a uniform base which may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice prisms, or snow grains. When the sun is visible through this cloud, its outline is clearly discernible. Often when a layer of stratus breaks up and dissipates blue sky is seen. We also call stratus clouds as overcast.

Both cumulus and stratus clouds are middle to low clouds and can block sun light from reaching the ground. (Imagine an overcast day. You will feel cold because there is less energy from the sun on ground.) With this, having more cumulus and stratus clouds contribute to a cooling effect (negative feedback)!

Contrails: Man-made clouds

http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclecondensation.html

Jet contrails = condensation trails caused by the exhaust from airplanes that contain water vapor, and are not much different from natural clouds. If the air is very cold (which it often is at high altitudes), then the water vapor in the exhaust will condense out into what is essentially a cirrus cloud.

Sailors have known for some time to look specifically at the patterns and persistence of jet contrails for weather forecasting. On days where the contrails disappear quickly or don't even form, they can expect continuing good weather. While on days where they persist, a change in the weather pattern may be expected.

Contrails: Man-made clouds

http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/fgz/science/contrail.php?wfo=fgz

If contrails persist for a long enough period of time, they can spread out

across the sky due to the prevailing winds at the level at which they

formed. The two figures show how contrails generated on this particular

day spread out fairly quickly due to the stronger jet stream of air aloft.

Persistence of contrails is neither an indication that they contain some kind

of chemical, nor that it is some kind of spray. It is simply an atmospheric

condition.

Contrails are a concern in climate studies as increased jet traffic may result

in an increase in cloud cover (specifically, cirrus cloud coverage). It has been

estimated that in certain heavy air-traffic corridors, cloud cover has

increased by as much as 20 percent. However, the world’s goals for

reducing aircraft emissions are still unclear as strategies vary by nation.

Below, I am sharing an interesting and informative reading about the

unknowns of contrails and the complicating relationship with jet fuel

exhaust.

Greening the Friendly SkiesBy Mark Betancourt, 4 November 2020

https://eos.org/features/greening-the-friendly-

skies?mkt_tok=eyJpIjoiTkRZeU1XWm1ObUZpWkdZMCIsInQiOiIzeE9BNGxoaD

gzWFYrMVhiaGkrQ0s3YlVuMU9STHo2XC9GNlZwWlM2NWlMb1NZQmxYcmlw

TnFPV1lrbGxjOWx1Mnk5QlJQb0dJUzRBK1BLNVVkZW5NdmZwMFk0UldBaTB

BM3lYTTJtc1lYSDJnWG5Tdjk3d3RscVRcL1wvTjU5dWt2dyJ9

The Coming Surge of Rocket Emissions

The launch plume from a test missile, photographed on 10 October 2013 by astronaut Luca Parmitano, diffuses into the middle and upper atmosphere during the first several minutes after launch. As the number of rocket launches increases in the future, rocket engine emissions will increase proportionally. Credit: © European Space Agency/NASA

By Martin N. Ross and Darin W. Toohey 24 September 2019, EOS

Due to the unique nature of the combustion chemistry, it turns out that rocket engines emit even larger amounts of black carbon than a modern jet engine. This means that it is more potent than contrails!

“With 114 launches in 2018, the number of launches has been growing at an average rate of about 8% per year for the past decade. Rocket emissions have also been growing.” (EOS)

Cloud feedbacks are more complicatedBecause cloud feedbacks are more complicated than other feedbacks, it is likely that it

causes uncertainty in climate predictions.

éTemperature

éclouds

éCO2or

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